The discovery of a second estrogen receptor (ER), ERβ, has led to a reevaluation of estrogen action. The widespread expression of ERβ-like proteins in normal and neoplastic mammary tissues suggests a role of ERβ in the breast. Little progress has been made in elucidating this role or roles, but the presence of two ERs and variant isoforms in breast cancers presents challenges and opportunities to tease out complexities in understanding the estrogen signaling pathway in breast tissues. Identification of two groups of ERβ-expressing tumors in vivo, and the possibility of differential function, has already raised expectations that targeting ERβ may offer new treatment options for breast cancer patients where previously only aggressive chemotherapies were available. This supports continued efforts to understand the nature and function of ERβ in breast cancer, but it also suggests that ER status may need to be redefined to include an assessment of ERβ isoforms in addition to ERα.
Tissue-specific regulation of genes by estrogen receptors.
Semin Reprod Med. 2012 Jan;30(1):14-22
Authors: Leitman DC, Paruthiyil S, Yuan C, Herber CB, Olshansky M, Tagliaferri M, Cohen I, Speed TP
Abstract
Estrogens are frequently used in reproductive medicine. The Women’s Health Initiative trial found that the risks of menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) exceed the benefits. The estrogens in MHT, however, were introduced prior to our understanding of the mechanism of action of estrogens. Estrogen signaling is highly complex, involving various DNA regulatory elements to which estrogen receptors bind. Numerous transcription factors and co-regulatory proteins modify chromatin structure to further regulate gene transcription. With a greater understanding of estrogen action, the major problem with the current estrogens in MHT appears to be that they are nonselective. This produces beneficial effects in bone, brain, and adipose tissue but increases the risk of breast and endometrial cancer and thromboembolism. Resurrecting MHT for long-term therapy will require the development of more selective estrogens, such as estrogen receptor (ER)β-selective estrogens and tissue-selective ERα agonists. These compounds will offer the best prospects to expand the indications of MHT and thus prevent the chronic conditions associated with menopause.
Estrogen Receptor-β in the Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Neuron.
Semin Reprod Med. 2012 Jan;30(1):23-31
Authors: Wolfe A, Wu S
Abstract
Estrogen regulation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neuronal activity plays a crucial role in homeostatic regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. Estrogen also coordinates a complex series of physiological changes culminating with a surge of gonadotropin secretion that triggers ovulation of a developed follicle from the ovary. The coordinated functions of estrogen ensure that the female will elaborate appropriate reproductive behaviors ultimately designed to deliver sperm to the oocyte and to provide a receptive uterine environment for the fertilized embryo. Although the effects of estrogen on GnRH neuronal function have long been proposed to be indirect due to the presumed lack of estrogen receptors in GnRH neurons, the identification of alternative estrogen signaling pathways, including estrogen receptor (ER)β and membrane ERs such as GPR30, has put the focus back on estrogen’s effect at the level of the GnRH neuron itself. One candidate to mediate the effects of estrogen is the β isoform of the estrogen receptor. We review the evidence for a role for ERβ-mediated regulation of GnRH neuronal function.
Ovarian Actions of Estrogen Receptor-β: An Update.
Semin Reprod Med. 2012 Jan;30(1):32-8
Authors: Drummond AE, Fuller PJ
Abstract
Estrogen is essential for folliculogenesis with independent roles attributed to each of the two estrogen receptors (ERs). ERβ, expressed predominantly by the ovarian granulosa cells, is required for antrum formation, preovulatory follicle maturation, expression of genes involved in ovarian differentiation (luteinizing hormone, aromatase, etc.), and follicle rupture during ovulation. Ovulatory dysfunction is associated with polymorphisms of the ERβ gene, and endocrine disruptors that selectively activate ERβ cause reproductive dysfunction and impairment fertility. ERβ may also exhibit antitumorigenic properties, with a decline in ERβ levels in epithelial ovarian cancers associated with more severe disease and poor prognosis. In this review, we examine the models that have been used to elucidate the roles ERβ plays in the ovary and consider the clinical consequences of altered ERβ expression or inappropriate activation of ERβ signaling.
Authors: Bulun SE, Monsavais D, Pavone ME, Dyson M, Xue Q, Attar E, Tokunaga H, Su EJ
Abstract
Endometriosis is an estrogen-dependent disease. The biologically active estrogen, estradiol, aggravates the pathological processes (e.g., inflammation and growth) and the symptoms (e.g., pain) associated with endometriosis. Abundant quantities of estradiol are available for endometriotic tissue via several mechanisms including local aromatase expression. The question remains, then, what mediates estradiol action. Because estrogen receptor (ER)β levels in endometriosis are >100 times higher than those in endometrial tissue, this review focuses on this nuclear receptor. Deficient methylation of the ERβ promoter results in pathological overexpression of ERβ in endometriotic stromal cells. High levels of ERβ suppress ERα expression. A severely high ERβ-to-ERα ratio in endometriotic stromal cells is associated with suppressed progesterone receptor and increased cyclo-oxygenase-2 levels contributing to progesterone resistance and inflammation. ERβ-selective estradiol antagonists may serve as novel therapeutics of endometriosis in the future.
Estrogen Receptor-α and Estrogen Receptor-β in the Uterine Vascular Endothelium during Pregnancy: Functional Implications for Regulating Uterine Blood Flow.
Semin Reprod Med. 2012 Jan;30(1):46-61
Authors: Pastore MB, Jobe SO, Ramadoss J, Magness RR
Abstract
The steroid hormone estrogen and its classical estrogen receptors (ERs), ER-α and ER-β, have been shown to be partly responsible for the short- and long-term uterine endothelial adaptations during pregnancy. The ER-subtype molecular and structural differences coupled with the differential effects of estrogen in target cells and tissues suggest a substantial functional heterogeneity of the ERs in estrogen signaling. In this review we discuss (1) the role of estrogen and ERs in cardiovascular adaptations during pregnancy, (2) in vivo and in vitro expression of ERs in uterine artery endothelium during the ovarian cycle and pregnancy, contrasting reproductive and nonreproductive arterial endothelia, (3) the structural basis for functional diversity of the ERs and estrogen subtype selectivity, (4) the role of estrogen and ERs on genomic responses of uterine artery endothelial cells, and (5) the role of estrogen and ERs on nongenomic responses in uterine artery endothelia. These topics integrate current knowledge of this very rapidly expanding scientific field with diverse interpretations and hypotheses regarding the estrogenic effects that are mediated by either or both ERs and their relationship with vasodilatory and angiogenic vascular adaptations required for modulating the dramatic physiological rises in uteroplacental perfusion observed during normal pregnancy.
The Emerging Role of Estrogen Receptor-β in Human Reproduction.
Semin Reprod Med. 2012 Jan;30(1):62-70
Authors: Su EJ, Xin H, Monsivais D
Abstract
Knowledge surrounding estrogen and estrogen receptor biology continues to evolve, and the diversity of their actions and complexity of their mechanisms are becoming increasingly evident. Estrogen receptor (ER) regulation of reproduction is no exception. Although it is well established that estrogen and ERα play key roles in mediating several reproductive biological processes, such as myometrial and endometrial growth, increasing evidence suggests that ERβ is also an important factor. ERβ is a key mediator in folliculogenesis and may also play a role in stimulating ovulation and regulating aspects of luteinization. ERβ is also expressed in higher quantities than ERα in the human myometrium and cervix during pregnancy, and thus it may play a part in the initiation of labor and parturition. Finally, ERβ is the sole ER expressed within the endothelium of the endometrium and the fetoplacental vasculature, and studies suggest that its role may contribute to angiogenic and vasomotor changes that play a role in both implantation and regulation of fetoplacental blood flow.
